Silvopastoral systems design as a strategy for adaptation and mitigation to climate change of livestock systems in the Central American tropics

The dairy-beef system predominates in all three countries. In Nicaragua, 77.5% of pastures are in fair or very poor condition, while in Costa Rica, 50% are in good condition and 37% need to be recovered, and in Panama 51% are in fair condition. 

The biggest costs are in feed, labor and rental of grazing areas. Most of the farms obtained positive net profits, being in some cases the only source of income for producing families. Livestock productivity is directly related to pasture conditions. The following strategies are recommended to improve them: longer rest period, fertilization and weed control; association with legumes; silvopastoral systems with legumes and diversified silvopastoral systems with forage banks. 

Regarding the bioengineering of silvopastoral systems and the perception about their adoption, it was found: i) the induction tours to demonstration plots motivated the inclusion of the systems in farm plans and that farmers who carried them out for more than three years implemented more than 51% of the practices; ii) in the Nicaraguan Dry Corridor, Fabaceae species represented more than 30% of the 47 identified woody species and that in the Compasagua river basin wooded pastures increased from 665 ha in 1980 to 6646 in 2010; iii) that as technological level increases, the water footprint (lt of water / lt of milk) decreases; iv) 85 to 115 trees per ha are recommended in paddocks; and v) in Panama, 61% of the trees were found in live fences, 32% in paddocks and only 6.8% in riparian forests. Incentive schemes were designed: credit, payment for environmental services and incorporation of environmental benefits into financial schemes. 

10 scientific articles, two undergraduate theses and eight postgraduate theses were produced.